Heat exposure and park visitation in Houston, Texas: A spatiotemporal study using smartphone mobility data, multilevel modeling, and field-measured COMFA outdoor thermal comfort

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ABSTRACT Background Urban warming increases heat exposure and alters patterns of outdoor behavior. Parks serve as important cooling refuges that also support physical activity, social connection, and mental restoration. Understanding how heat affects park visitation can offer valuable insights about strategies to incorporate climate-resilient public spaces in urban environments. Methods Smartphone mobility data captured visitation to 51 neighborhood parks in Houston, Texas. Meteorological variables with COMFA heat-stress levels were used to estimate thermal comfort conditions. Multilevel Gaussian models analyzed the influence of weather, park features, and social factors on park visitation outcomes. A subset of six parks was then selected for on-site COMFA measures using sensors to further explore detailed microclimatic variations within individual parks. Results Park use varied by season and heat stress, with slightly higher visits, dwell time, and travel distance on heat-stress days. Visitation showed a nonlinear COMFA pattern, increasing under moderate conditions and declining at higher stress levels. In adjusted models, COMFA had only a weak association with visitation, while paved open space and sports facilities were linked to lower use. Shade, water features, and vegetation modified heat-related responses, and field measurements confirmed that shade and natural surfaces reduced thermal exposure. Conclusions Heat exposure shifts the drivers of park use. Visitation depended not on individual amenities, but on whether park design translated similar features into measurably cooler microclimates through integrated heat-resilient strategies. Integrating mobility data with microclimate measurements provides a practical framework for guiding heat-resilient park design and prioritizing investments in heat-vulnerable communities.