Equity in mobility as a service: An evaluation framework

Source abstract

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) integrates multiple transport modes through a digital platform, but its implications for transportation equity remain insufficiently understood. This study develops a multidimensional MaaS equity evaluation framework to assess how the benefits and burdens of MaaS are distributed across different population groups. It combines transportation-equity theory, a semi-systematic review of mode-specific equity indicators, and a bibliometric analysis of integrated-transport equity research. The review synthesises equity concerns across active travel and shared micromobility, conventional public transport, demand-responsive transport, and platform-mediated mobility. Fourteen mode-specific indicators were identified and subsequently integrated with system-level and MaaS-specific considerations, resulting in a framework of 20 indicators across five categories: infrastructure planning, operations management, social impacts, economic impacts, and platform governance. The synthesis shows that MaaS may inherit inequities from its constituent modes, compound barriers across multimodal journeys, and reshape equity outcomes through digital access, service integration, pricing, data governance, and institutional coordination. The framework provides a structured basis for assessing who benefits from MaaS integration and under what conditions, while showing that improvements in operational efficiency do not necessarily produce equitable outcomes. Phased policy recommendations are proposed to support more inclusive and operationally viable MaaS development.